The old border conflict between Thailand and Cambodia has gotten out of hand once again, with Thai air attacks that represent the most severe escalation since the middle of 2025. Fighter jets hit Cambodian military installations on both sides of the frontier that had been contentious, with Thai troops caught in the crossfire and at least one dead and some men and women hurt, on Monday, according to the Thai army. The Cambodians reject the allegations of shooting first and accuse Thailand of unprovoked aggression, injuring at least three civilians in the Preah Vihear province. The 817-kilometre border between Thailand and Cambodia has been simmering for months, especially around temple complexes like Preah Vihear and Ta Muen Thom, where the border is ill-defined and highly symbolic. The immediate catalyst behind the decision by the Bangkok government to summon the air force was a fatal event on Sunday when the Thai government alleges that the Cambodian troops fired shells in Ubon Ratchathani province, killing a Thai soldier and injuring others.

Thai officials deny that the air raids were offensive measures and assert they were limited, defensive measures against artillery positions and troop masses, which they say were concentrated near the border. Thai F-16s attacked Cambodian territory in Preah Vihear and Oddar Meanchey provinces around dawn, the Cambodians counter the Thais, hitting villages in the area and causing people to evacuate. The violence has broken a ceasefire signed in Kuala Lumpur in October, when former U.S. President Donald Trump and Malaysian Prime Minister Anwar Ibrahim facilitated the Kuala Lumpur Peace Accord between Thai Prime Minister Anutin Charnvirakul and his Cambodian counterpart, Hun Manet. The agreement obliged both parties to withdraw heavy arms, to collaborate in the clearance of landmines, and to have ASEAN observers patrol the truce. That was a setup that was already strained. In November, Thailand suspended its deal and claimed that landmines maimed several of its soldiers, who it claimed had been recently planted by Cambodian forces, an allegation Phnom Penh denies. Clashes had sporadically halted its deal, and ASEAN observers had already suspended some of its monitoring visits due to security reasons. Trump has offered the October deal as the flagship achievement of his current foreign policy activism, and Anwar, as the chair of ASEAN, spent significant political capital bringing both sides to Kuala Lumpur. The air attacks of Monday are now threatening to unwind that diplomacy and to bring discredit to ASEAN as a conflict manager in its own region.

The re-emerging conflict is targeting civilians in frontier provinces that had already been traumatised by the clashes in July that claimed dozens of lives and displaced over 300,000. According to Thai officials, over 35,000 residents have already been evacuated in Ubon Ratchathani, Surin, Sisaket and Buriram districts, where their houses are located near potential firing by artillery, in schools and sports halls. Thousands of people are reported to be leaving Preah Vihear and Oddar Meanchey border communities by Cambodian officials in fear that ground confrontations can follow the air raids. There are also threats to the local economies. Major crossings have been shut, the flow of goods across borders has slowed, and farmers who are already feeling the inflation pinch are worried that, even without the war spreading, they may lose access to their farms. Humanitarian organisations have been alerting that mass displacement, as in the July mass exodus, could recur with artillery duels returning to normal.

Deep historical roots of the dispute

Even though the current crisis is associated with ongoing conflicts and broken ceasefires, its origins can be traced back to a century of unresolved border and identity politics. The border between Thailand and Cambodia was initially drawn on a French colonial map in 1907 and has been disputed ever since. In 1962, the International Court of Justice determined that the ancient hilltop temple of Preah Vihear was Cambodian, and, as of 2013, explained that the surrounding territory was also Cambodian. However, Thailand questioned several points of the ruling and the precise delimitation of the adjacent land. Both sides are bolstered by strong nationalist accounts, which add weight to these legal arguments. Many Cambodians regard the temples as the representation of the Khmer civilisation, and Thailand is accused of cultural appropriation and territorial intrusion. Other Thai nationalists, in their turn, also challenge the justice of the colonial-era maps and present concessions as the betrayal of Thai sovereignty. The dispute has been used by politicians and even officials in both countries to seek localised political and military backing, which has complicated the reconciliation process.

Malaysian Prime Minister Anwar Ibrahim has termed the air attacks as highly worrying and urged Bangkok and Phnom Penh to pull back to the edge and reaffirm the Kuala Lumpur accord with new ASEAN mediation. The former influential leader of Cambodia, Hun Sen, who is the current president of the Senate, has instructed Cambodian forces to maintain caution and reminded them that whoever intensifies the combat will stand to see the peace they have gained destroyed. To date, there is no indication of active intervention by the major powers; however, Washington, Beijing and neighbouring Vietnam would have a significant stake in ensuring that a long-term conflict does not occur, thus derailing trade routes and supply chains, as well as the stability experienced in the region. The U.S. State Department and the foreign ministry of China are likely to put pressure on both sides, one-on-one, to resume the ceasefire arrangements they signed only a few weeks ago. Whether Thailand will cease air operations in the short term is the most critical question, as well as whether Cambodia will persist in its non-direct retaliation. In case both sides intensify the conflict, by regularly bombing the other, firing artillery at populated areas or invading each other, the war may soon go beyond the borders of communities and encourage ASEAN or the UN Security Council to think about more forceful diplomatic intervention. Both governments assert they still intend to continue negotiations, but each accuses the other of violating the truce. Without unbiased surveillance and a reliable system to probe the occurrences, the accusations of who fired first are likely to persist. It is the crisis that highlights the precarious nature of the 2025 peace architecture surrounding the Thai-Cambodian border: historic grievances, vague borders, landmines, and well-armed forces, all within kilometres of each other.

The air attacks on Monday will not be the first, but unless there is continuous pressure from ASEAN, major powers, and domestic populations in both countries, no political settlement, no real demilitarisation of sensitive regions will be achieved.

The most recent exchange of fire along the Spin Boldak -Chaman border once again leaves Pakistan on the edge of the unstable situation in the region, facing the challenge of a multifaceted, cross-border militancy, boundary conflict and humanitarian pressure. Although there has been a lot of shelling and even armed confrontations that have claimed the lives of several people on either side of the border, the Pakistani attitude has been essentially defensive: defend its land, protect people and maintain the delicate truce that had just been established, only weeks earlier, with the aid of international brokering. Pakistan is in a security environment where armed groups located on the opposite side of the border have consistently succeeded in attacking its security personnel and police in its western regions. These attacks have been perpetuated despite the painstakingly negotiated truces and therefore compel Pakistan to ensure the highest level of vigilance and at the same time keep its end of the bargain to de-escalation. Recent border violence has been the result of recent large-scale conflicts in October, which led to dozens of deaths and a move to mediate by the regionals to establish a ceasefire arrangement urgently.

That is why Pakistan’s response to the new fire across the border has been framed in a deterrence, not an escalation, framework. Its troops have also focused on responding to attacks rather than initiating indiscriminate attacks and on directing their fire at targeted enemy positions. Formal communication has always emphasised adherence to territorial integrity, the avoidance of civilian casualties, and the preservation of already agreed ceasefire agreements. This is in contrast to the claims made in the cross-border that artillery was utilised in a manner that hit houses and displaced the residents. This trend has been used to indicate how militant groups and rogue units across the border can transform local incidents into general crises. Another aspect that complicates the role of Pakistan is that there are various non-state actors based in the territory of Afghanistan, such as the groups that openly announce their involvement in suicide bombings and sophisticated attacks within Pakistan. The recent weeks have seen the organisations publicly celebrate the activities against Pakistani police and security institutions, which proves that they are active and emboldened. So long as these groups have the freedom to move and rear bases across the border, Pakistan is left with no option but to make its border a live theatre of security, whilst seeking dialogue. Although under these pressures, Pakistan has consistently opted to use the diplomatic route when possible. It has been engaged in various series of talks with regional partners, such as negotiations in the Gulf, aimed at providing the October ceasefire with a more lasting political basis. These talks are yet to bear a final solution. However, Pakistan has been urging to get definite security assurances, measurable actions to curb cross-border militancy and formalised means of ensuring local incidents do not escalate into overt hostilities. This method underscores a calculative tactic: the strategic establishment of peace on the frontier cannot be achieved by the sword alone, but only through mutual commitments and restraint.

Simultaneously, Pakistan has been opening major crossings to humanitarian flows into Afghanistan despite the tension. Allowing United Nations aid and business goods to cross into the country is indicative of the fact that the everyday Afghans should not suffer the cost of the actions of the armed groups. To the state that has its own large refugee and returnee population, it is in its interest to ensure that the trade routes are operational and the basic relief channels are available so that they do not suffer further displacement and instability spills across the border. The recent confrontation in Spin Boldak should then be viewed as a larger trend: Pakistan taking in the repercussions of unresolved issues in its west, and attempting to protect its own people, who are attacked outside its borders. Pakistan is signalling that it is interested in stability and not confrontation by calling a collective response to militant networks, by accepting mediation, and by making its military posture one of deterrence and defence. Now it is up to all concerned to ensure that words are accompanied by action in the field, so that this sensitive frontier can no longer be a repeated flashpoint but a channel of legitimate trade, safe movement, and regional collaboration.

Pakistan and Afghanistan are currently at a crossroads. Following some of the most significant border conflicts since the Taliban came back to power in Kabul in 2021, the two neighbours came to an agreement in Doha in October 2025 with the mediation of Qatar and Türkiye to an immediate ceasefire to stop artillery exchanges and airstrikes along the border. A subsequent block of negotiations in Istanbul failed in a short time. Pakistan demanded that any lasting ceasefire had to involve hard power against the Tehreek-e-Taliban Pakistan (TTP) situated on Afghan soil. At the same time, the Afghan authorities denied the claims by Pakistan as an effort to put the internal security of Pakistan on their shoulders. Despite this diplomatic failure, both parties have widely respected the ceasefire and continue to discuss peace, indicating that neither can afford a full-scale war and that there may be room for a more positive Pakistani role.

The most recent conflicts in 2025 suggest that this relationship is heading towards tension and potential overt violence. There have been exchanges of artillery fire and airstrikes in border districts like Spin Boldak and neighboring Pakistani territories; civilian deaths and destroyed homes have been reported. Pakistan explains such action as a need to protect its citizens against Afghan militants on its side, whilst Kabul denounces such activities as interfering with its sovereignty and cites its own victims of Pakistani shelling. Meanwhile, neither party is ignorant of the fact that any protracted conflict would destroy already weak economies, inflame the movement of refugees, and expose them to further international pressure.

It is in this light that Pakistan stands a real chance to demonstrate that it wants peace, not confrontation, permanently. The initial approach is to base its security interest in collaborative systems, rather than relying mainly on solo kinetic interventions. Pakistan has the right to insist on its neighbour not to permit armed groups to attack across the border. Still, more lasting outcomes can be achieved when this is integrated into bilateral mechanisms, such as a bilateral border commission, agreed-upon rules for monitoring and verification, and mechanisms for exchanging intelligence on the movements of militant groups. With additional stimulus being provided by regional partners like Qatar and Türkiye, these mechanisms can ultimately instill confidence in the region that there will be institutionalized measures to address security issues, rather than through unplanned escalation.

The second opportunity for Pakistan to play a positive role is by taking a proactive initiative to shift the focus from strategic depth to economic depth. The studies of Afghanistan-Pakistan relations consistently indicate that the two states are incredibly interdependent: the instability and poverty of one state quickly disseminates to the other side of the frontier. Pakistan can treat Afghanistan as an ally in commerce and transportation, rather than viewing it primarily as a buffer zone. Already, the Afghanistan-Pakistan Transit Trade Agreement (APTTA) provides a framework that, when revised and applied in good faith, would facilitate the free flow of goods in and out of Central Asia through Pakistani ports. Conjugating Afghan connectivity to the rest of the regional projects, such as road and rail networks and energy corridors, would provide both neighbours with an economic incentive to ensure the stability of the border.

Human security is another sphere in which Pakistan’s decisions can either aggravate or mitigate the situation. Pakistan has been hosting Afghan refugees in their millions over the past forty years, with little international participation. In more modern times, Islamabad has been speeding up the process of deporting Afghans who are undocumented, citing security concerns and an economic burden, which caused humanitarian groups to worry and Afghans to become furious. A more peace-oriented approach would not deny Pakistan the right to regulate migration. Still, it would achieve returns with the help of transparent procedures, coordination of activities with Afghan authorities and international agencies, and special protection for vulnerable categories. Local concerns such as joint development projects in border areas, which can benefit both Pakistani nationals and Afghan refugees, would assist in mitigating the local grievances and rendering communities less vulnerable to being militant recruits.

The effect of these national policies can be increased through regional diplomacy. The latest ceasefire and negotiations have demonstrated that other countries, such as Qatar, Türkiye, and China, have a strong interest in avoiding a total breakdown between Kabul and Islamabad. Pakistan can choose to cooperate with Afghanistan on a normal regional level, where issues of security, economic collaboration, and humanitarian concerns are discussed on a mutual basis, rather than acting alone. This would help ease the perception that Pakistan wants to dictate the Afghan outcome on its own and instead make it appear as one of the many stakeholders concerned with stability.

Finally, Afghanistan and Pakistan cannot be at peace, as a favour of one state towards another, but as a necessity. The history of mistrust, unresolved boundaries, and armed groups in the region presents an obstacle, and therefore, the journey will not be easy. When comparing its legitimate security concerns with cooperation in border control, economic integration, humane refugee policies, and active regional diplomacy, Pakistan can justifiably argue that the region is acting in the interest of Western stability as a whole.

The new wave of violence is taking place on two fronts in Pakistan despite the state continuing to claim it desires peace and stability. In South Waziristan, Cadet College Wana was attacked by terrorists of Fitna al-Khawarij (linked to TTP and being a foreign-sponsored group, as defined by Pakistan). They attempted to replicate an APS-style massacre by driving a bomb-stuffed vehicle inside the main gate and then trying to go further into the campus. Police transformed to the rescue scene incredibly quickly and killed two of the attackers and surrounded three others in the administrative block, which allowed the hostels and classes of the cadets to remain untouched by the initial attack. Meanwhile, through Operation Azm-e-Istehkam, the army has killed some 20 militants in individual intelligence operations in North Waziristan and Dara Adam Khel, which demonstrates that they are not merely waiting to be attacked, but actively targeting these networks, disrupting their hideouts, supply chains, and channels of communication.

Collectively, all these events indicate a particular pattern: extremist organizations are aiming to strike sensitive targets such as schools and security installations to instill fear, and the state is attempting to push them back with specific anti-terror actions and enhanced security of civilians. The formal communication from Islamabad and Rawalpindi is that Pakistan does not desire a permanent war, but rather peaceful borders, secure cities, and the opportunity for students in regions such as the former tribal areas to study in peace. Through the use of military force with the power of the tongue, development and regional integration, Pakistan is attempting to demonstrate both to itself and the world that it is not combating terrorism to create more tension within the region but rather to achieve a stable, peaceful future.

The same day, the capital of the country also received another tragedy. There was a strong blast at a district court in G-11 area of Islamabad which killed up to 12 people and injured many others as reported by several media houses. Initial reports indicate that it was a car bomb or a suicide bomb close to the court entrance, an area that is normally full of lawyers, litigants and police. The attack has not been explicitly attributed to any group, although the government, once again, used innocent people and the justice system as the central targets of the capital city in Pakistan.

The Wana attack as well as Islamabad court blast can be included in a series whereby extremists and terrorists attempt to spread fear by targeting schools, courts and congested places. The leaders and security forces of Pakistan are attempting to convey the reverse message of what they desire, i.e. peace, good institutions and security of its youth. The state claims through Azm-e-Istehkam and the National Action Plan that it would continue with its accurate counter terror operations besides advocating education, development and enhanced security in the conflict areas. Its official statements insist that neither Pakistan nor any of its neighbours wants war or tension; the country aims at regional cooperation to allow its citizens to enjoy their lives, study and work without fear of bombs in schools and courts.

The Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO) has evolved from a small regional security coalition into one of the most impressive and influential multilateral organizations in the world. With ten full members, fourteen dialogue partners, and a footprint that encompasses more than 40 percent of the global population and nearly 25 percent of global GDP, the SCO is both ambitious and complex. It is against this background that Pakistan’s role has undergone a critical transformation. After being predominantly a security player, the country is currently defining itself under the SCO as one that supports peace, stability, and economic connectivity. The current events provide an empirical example to analyse this transition.

Diplomatic Reset and Multilateral Credibility

The most noticeable was when Pakistan opened diplomatic relations with Armenia on the sidelines of the SCO summit in Tianjin. This was not a regular rebalancing but a re-evaluation of years-old foreign policy alignments. In forming formal associations after decades of estrangement, Pakistan was indicating its readiness to proceed pragmatically in supporting regional reconciliation. The timing and venue matter. Running this breakthrough on the SCO platform reinforces the platform’s role as a trusted space for building trust and de-escalating conflict. It demonstrates that Pakistan can utilize multilateral environments to foster bilateral diplomacy in various forms, promoting collective stability. In addition to symbolism, this action can open trade routes into the Eurasian Economic Union via Armenia, particularly after the free trade agreement between the Eurasian bloc and Iran comes into effect in May 2025. This has allowed Pakistan to access a market of 180 million people through reduced-tariff routes via Iran and Armenian gateways, where it can have a realistic chance of exploiting the opportunities. SCO offers the framework within which such experiments can be institutionalized.

From Security Club to Development Platform

The SCO is in a decisive phase of its development, and the concept of a Development Bank is gaining increasing popularity. This would embed the idea of financial cooperation within the institution, underpinning the existing Interbank Consortium, which was formed in 2005. In the case of Pakistan, the potential is enormous. The all-year-round flooding tragedies in the nation cost the nation 1.5-2 percent of GDP in annual losses. In 2025, alone, Punjab suffered heavy flooding due to cross-border water releases, which displaced millions of people and destroyed crop production. Another source of funding for the aforementioned flood-resilient canals, embankments, and early-warning systems can be via the proposed SCO bank. The same applies to the energy sector. In early 2025, Pakistan was admitted to the world’s 25 percent solar club, with approximately a quarter of its monthly electricity production generated by solar energy. This is an impressive but precarious success, as grid instability and the absence of storage will ultimately impact reliability. Targeted financing of battery storage and grid modernisation would ensure these gains through an SCO mechanism. They could be exported as an example to other member states experiencing climate volatility. Therefore, counterterrorism or border control is no longer the only argument that Pakistan can advance in the SCO. It is the process of addressing climate security and sustainable development as the fabric of regional cooperation. Such a transition is consistent with the mission articulated by the SCO of integrated security and economic growth, and reinforces Pakistan’s leadership role in defining the organisation’s agenda.

Complex Trade Realities and Opportunities

The financial indicators do not give a promising picture. In fiscal year 2025, Pakistan exported goods worth $32.1 billion, representing a 4.7 percent increase from the previous year. The largest partner was China, which traded to the tune of $23.1 billion, but Pakistan contributed only $2.38 billion. In Central Asia, exports remain on the fringe, accounting for less than one percent of the total, and even decreased by 17 percent in the first half of FY25 to approximately 90.8 million. The trade with Russia is restricted to less than $70 million per year, and payment channels limit the trade with Iran.
When the gap is put against the scale of the SCO trade, it becomes apparent. In 2024, China traded with SCO member states for $512.4 billion, and with the participation of observers and dialogue partners, the total reached $890.3 billion. The China-Europe Railway Express alone made more than 19,000 journeys, representing a 10.7 percent annual increase. The fact that Pakistan is underutilizing this regional throughput is both a weakness and an opportunity. The emphasis is not on generic promises, but on technical solutions: mutual acceptance of sanitary and phytosanitary standards, investment in modern packhouses, and stable cross-border payment systems. When Pakistan pilots ten SCO-commissioned rice, kinnow, and meat export facilities, the nation will contribute at least $ 150 million to Central Asia exports in a year. Similarly, moving even half a billion dollars of China-related trade to local-currency settlement through the SCO Interbank Consortium would decrease dollar dependency and make it more resilient. These small steps can be measured and replicated by other members.

Peace and Stability as Strategic Currency

Pakistan joins the SCO at a time when geopolitical tensions are at their peak. In early 2025, a four-day conflict with a neighbour culminated in missile and drone flights and was only stopped by outside intervention. The episode revealed the fragility of peace in the South Asian region and the importance of institutionalizing crisis-management instruments. The SCO and its Regional Anti-Terrorist Structure, having experience in organizing security responses, is a suitable venue for experimenting with new mechanisms. The most sensible suggestion would be the creation of a 24/7 crisis hotline, run by SCO, and an incident-logging system available to everyone on board. This type of mechanism would not resolve disputes, but would help minimize miscalculations and escalation. Combined with the fact that Pakistan has decided to explore new diplomatic options within the Caucasus, the message is clear: stability is not a slogan, but a strategic currency. A nation that always declines to be a provocateur in a multilateral context enhances its credibility and power.

Climate Resilience as Collective Security

The 2025 floods once again underscored that climate events are not merely national issues but rather regional security challenges. International water releases exacerbate flood management challenges, while heatwaves threaten energy grids and agriculture in South and Central Asia. The SCO Flood and Heat Risk Taskforce, proposed by Pakistan, would directly address such issues. Such a task force can produce concrete results by combining hydrological information sharing, emergency provisioning, and collective financing of damage repair, via the proposed SCO bank. This is not intangible advocacy. Pakistan has already demonstrated its ability to rapidly scale renewable energy, increasing its solar penetration to a quarter of its monthly generation in just a decade. This experience, shared and reproduced through multilateral finance, offers a way to collective security beyond the deployment of troops and intelligence exchange over the SCO space.

Towards a Measurable Future

The key test for Pakistan’s role in the SCO will be whether it can translate summit rhetoric into measurable outcomes. Five concrete steps define this trajectory:
1. First mover borrowing by SCO finance: Borrow up to 2-3 billion in Phase-1 lending to support flood resilience and solar grid-firming with concrete metrics, including a 20 percent growth in safe discharge capacity at key headworks and 500 MW of storage in place.
Payments innovation: In China, settle at least half a billion dollars tied to trade in local currency by FY26, eliminating dollar exposure and testing scalability with other members.
2. Standards harmonization: Develop 10 SCO-certified export hubs for agricultural products, which will increase Central Asia’s exports by $150 million in one year.
3. New diplomatic routes: Introduce the Armenia channel to implement test loads within the framework of the EAEU tariff book and receive the first 100 containers in the country within 20 days.
4. Rail-sea integration: Co-locate with the China-Europe Railway Express and establish a Karachi/Gwadar sea leg, which will reduce the transit time between Tianjin and Karachi to below 18 days.

Conclusion

The SCO has ceased to be a peripheral event; it is the frontline of the Eurasian contest of ideas, markets, and security paradigms. Pakistan’s attendance at Tianjin in 2025 demonstrated a calculated shift: from a reactive actor concerned with security fears to an advocate of peace, stability, and integration. The establishment of ties with Armenia, the push for a development-oriented SCO, and the articulation of climate resilience as collective security mark this transition. In the case of Pakistan, the way ahead is obvious. The challenge is to shift declarations into deliverables, focusing on funding resilience, promoting open trade, institutionalizing crisis management, and operationalizing new diplomatic paths. When undertaken with discipline, Pakistan’s engagement in the SCO will not only boost its stability but also enhance the organization’s reputation as a platform for joint peace and prosperity among Eurasians.

This time, in 2025, Pakistan is going through a more severe climate disaster than the disastrous floods of 2022, and the causes are multi-layered and mutually connected. Human-induced warming has increased monsoon rains by 15 percent this year, and this trend is consistent with scientific knowledge that the magnitude of extreme rainfall increases with the degree of temperature rise. This implies that record disasters may occur even in the absence of record seasons, when brief periods of rain with high moisture content deluge susceptible terrain. However, in contrast to the national deluge that struck the country in 2022, the existing crisis has been localized in Punjab, where the precipitation is 26.5 percent greater than it was in 2021. The Sutlej, Chenab, and Ravi rivers have reached record levels, prompting intentional overtopping of embankments and the displacement of millions. Since Punjab is the wheat and cotton belt of the country, this geographic concentration increases the risk of economic and food security. The state of affairs is aggravated by compounding risks: cloudbursts in the western Himalaya and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, which are increasingly common in a warmer climate, have overloaded already oversaturated catchments, and unplanned urban development that transforms heavy rain into mass-casualty events. To this are added transboundary risks when discharges from Indian dams overflow into Pakistan’s rivers, changing the end result from severe floods to catastrophic ones. Below these short-term causes lies long-term susceptibility: Pakistan has become more than half a degree warmer in a century, seawater off Karachi is rising, and heavier rain and heatwave days are becoming more common, putting rivers, coasts, and cities at risk and forcing them to fail at lower levels. The hazard is exacerbated by governance and exposure lapses, as informal settlements occupying floodplains, encroached drains, and the lax implementation of building regulations expose millions of people to the hazard. Communication breakdowns and bottlenecks in rescue operations were again highlighted as issues that have been identified over the years but not addressed.

These climate-related losses are already costing the country USD 38 billion a year, and the experience of 2022, which saw over USD 30 billion in losses, has not translated into more serious investment in resilience. The 2025 disaster is then the direct outcome of poor preparedness, inadequate financing, and poor organizational structure. What is unique this year is that attribution science proves that climate change has directly increased rainfall. Now that over two million people are affected and the rivers in Punjab are at record levels, the crisis demonstrates that an attack on the breadbasket can wreak havoc on the economy as much as a nationwide flood. Food-price volatility and fiscal strain is here to stay, unless immediate measures are implemented to secure pre-harvest crops, increase storage, and fortify protective infrastructure

The “why now” diagnosis

What must change now?

Pakistan’s approach to the 2025 floods must extend beyond mere emergency relief and incorporate structural reforms that regard climate resilience as a vital component of national infrastructure. Firstly, floodplains ought to be treated as essential assets. Implementing river setbacks with cash-plus relocation for the most vulnerable households, alongside anti-encroachment initiatives on significant urban drainage systems, can diminish immediate fatalities and avert expensive emergency breaches.

Secondly, last-mile warnings must effectively reach the populace. Enhancing cell-broadcast alerts, installing sirens, upgrading radar systems for cloudburst detection, and establishing clear trigger-to-action protocols within schools and communities would convert lead time into organized evacuations.

Thirdly, adaptation strategies should transition from temporary sandbags to permanent hydraulic solutions by broadening and safeguarding urban drainage systems, decommissioning weak embankments, and rehabilitating wetlands and mangroves to manage peak water flows. Agriculture, which is the cornerstone of Punjab’s economy, must be fortified against shocks through secure grain storage, resilient crop varieties, water-efficient practices, and insurance schemes linked to rainfall and river stage indicators.

Moreover, financing must correspond to the magnitude of risk. This entails creating parametric catastrophe layers and contingent credit facilities while safeguarding adaptation budgets to ensure stability during fiscal challenges. At the transboundary level, protocols for the Indus basin must be updated through agreed-upon release notices, ramping schedules, and collaborative flood exercises with India to mitigate unexpected downstream surges.

Lastly, national policy must be in harmony with scientific realities. Planning standards should now account for more intense one-day rainfall extremes, reconstruction efforts should adhere to resilience benchmarks rather than outdated standards, and capital expenditures must be directed toward infrastructure capable of enduring the climate conditions of the 2030s and beyond. Collectively, these measures would stabilize lives and livelihoods, reduce disaster premiums, and shield Pakistan from recurring cycles of loss and unpreparedness.

The equity and macro case

Pakistan contributes less than 1% to global greenhouse gas emissions. Yet, it is classified as one of the countries most vulnerable to climate change, incurring economic impacts related to climate amounting to USD 38 billion annually. The disaster in 2022 alone resulted in damages of USD 14.9 billion and losses of USD 15.2 billion—figures that will need to be reassessed unless the risks associated with habitation and value production are systematically mitigated. The crisis in Punjab in 2025 demonstrates that specific failures in agricultural regions can have macroeconomic repercussions comparable to those of national flooding. Consequently, the evaluation of Loss-and-Damage financing and domestic protective measures should be based on the verified reduction of risk per dollar spent in flood-prone areas, drainage systems, and last-mile warning systems, rather than merely on ceremonial inaugurations.

What to measure next monsoon (accountability dashboard)
• Lead time delivered (minutes/hours) to households per alert;
• % of encroachments removed on named urban drains;
• Hectares under setback enforcement and households relocated with cash-plus;
• Parametric coverage (lives/livelihoods) and payout time post-trigger;
• Storage protected (grain/livestock) and post-event price spikes avoided;
• Basin release notice compliance (timestamped).

14 August is a day that the people of Pakistan celebrate every year as it changed the history of millions of Muslims in the subcontinent. It was in 1947 that the dream of those forefathers was realized through the aspirations and dreams of our forbearers. The establishment of Pakistan was not an arbitrary political change, made on a map, but was an incredible act. This achievement is bought with blood and tears and sacrifices of a thousand thousand men. This Independence Day is not merely an occasion to celebrate sovereignty but also a day that makes us reflect on the sacrifices made by our forefathers so that this freedom could be achieved, and a call to our brothers and sisters in Indian-occupied Kashmir who continue to aspire to the right of self-determination.

The road to independence was a long, hard one. The political awakening of the early days under Sir Syed Ahmed Khan to the philosophical vision of Allama Iqbal and the ultimate leadership of Quaid-e-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah enabled every step to show the vision and relentlessness. Even though ill health took him seriously, Jinnah dedicated his last years to the cause, despite his declining health, to make sure that the pace of the Pakistan Movement never wavered. He was accompanied by his sister, Mohtarma Fatima Jinnah, who fought side by side with him in mobilizing women and providing political support to the Muslim League. Many leaders, activists, and commoners sacrificed themselves in this national cause, and it is a common realization that their individual sacrifice was the cost of a free nation.

The 1947 Partition stands out among the most significant and most traumatic mass movements of people in human history. A total of over 15 million had been displaced, and they had to leave their homes, businesses, and their ancestral lands and cross the newly defined borders. Indescribable struggles characterised the road to the process; in the stations, trains rolled in with the lifeless bodies of people who had gone in hopes but could never reach the shore. Communal massacres extinguished entire families, and two million people were said to have lost their lives during the violence that accompanied independence. The people who had survived had to support their lives with nothing. Highly qualified people, such as professionals, business people, and civil servants, who immigrated to Pakistan took on lower jobs and wages to help the country survive. They were the pioneers of the early institutions of our state and the impetus that set the dream of a prosperous Pakistan that was not motivated by individual benefit.

Ever since its formation, Pakistan has celebrated Independence Day with pride and thanksgiving. It starts with hoisting the national flag in Islamabad, the national capital, with speeches made by the President and Prime Minister, paying tribute to the past sacrifices and the country’s vision for the future. The green and white flags are set a-fluttering on the rooftops of cities and villages, the roads are gay with buntings, and the air is filled with patriotic songs. The group of family members sits at a table, sharing the experiences of their elders in getting through the hard times, teaching resiliency to the young ones. Such cultural programs, parades, and exhibitions bring history to life and guarantee that the spirit of 1947 will never be forgotten.

But as we relish in our freedom, we do not forget our conscience, which reminds us of our pending business of Partition, the destiny of Jammu and Kashmir. Princely states were supposed to be merged with either India or Pakistan at the time of independence, depending on the location and the desires of the population. Kashmir, as a place with a substantial Muslim majority and cultural closeness to Pakistan, was supposed to join Pakistan. Instead, the Indian troops went into the region in 1947, igniting the initial war between the two new states. The Indian voters in the occupied Kashmir have since lived under decades of military occupation, human rights violations, and political oppression.

Kashmir has experienced uninterrupted brutality for more than three-quarters of a century. There have been months of curfews imposed on entire towns, communications have been cut so they can no longer communicate with the rest of the world, and thousands have been detained with no trial. Extrajudicial killings, torture, and the targeting of civilians have been documented by reports issued by international human rights organizations. The annulment of Article 370 in 2019 reduced the freedom of the territory, and that only heightened the feeling of betrayal and occupation. Despite this, the Kashmiri spirit has not been crushed. Their struggles can be traced back to the first rebellions, like the Poonch Rebellion of 1947, to contemporary rebellions. People feel a need to fight against the same cause that brought the Pakistan Movement, that no nation has the right to deprive people of their freedom and dignity.

It is not only history that ends at 1947, but also the history of sacrifice. Despite wars, economic crisis, natural calamities, and political failures, Pakistan has had the choice of living a stable life, and the greatest asset of the country has been its people. Leaders such as Liaquat Ali Khan, the first Prime Minister of Pakistan, stabilized the young state at the cost of his own life, having been assassinated in 1951. The army has played its role to protect the independence of the country against all odds, and numerous soldiers have become martyrs to keep the fatherland safe. The living legacy of the commitment to autonomy consists of such sacrifices.

Independence Day is thus not just a time of recollection; it is something that we look forward to achieving. It is a reminder of how, within Pakistan, we were united, how the state was built through faith and with discipline, and how we applied these same things in dealing with our problems today. There are areas that we should strive to improve in, and these are the strengthening of the democratic institutions, guarantee of social justice, education investment, and the attainment of a self-reliant economy. Meanwhile, we should not relent in supporting Kashmiri people on diplomatic, political, and moral aspects. Their freedom is not merely a local issue-it is an issue of redeeming the promise of justice upon which our independence struggle was based.

When the green and white flag is hoisted on August 14th, it not only shows our sovereignty but also our generation’s sacrifices. It bears the memory of those who died so that we might live as free people. It also bears hopes about the people of Kashmir, whose right to self-determination has never been fulfilled yet. This Independence Day, we should feel proud of what we have accomplished, salute our martyrs, and rededicate our commitment to support our Kashmiri Brothers and Sisters until the day they, too, will be able to breathe freely in their land.

Opportunities for a Strategic Economic Reset

Perhaps one of the most crucial and cyclical relationships in Pakistani foreign policy has been between Pakistan and the United States. It has lapsed and switched in the last 70 years between intimate collaboration and bouts of unbridled estrangement. It has been influenced mainly by developments in the global strategic sphere, and no longer by bilateral plans. Pakistan has been labeled as the most allied ally and the most sanctioned ally of the United States, with an emphasis on its vacillations in the American priorities. In the past, peak periods of engagement have been attributed to common geopolitical interests, e.g., Pakistan as a catalyst in U.S. and Chinese rapprochement in the 1970s, as a partner in disengagement of Soviet forces in Afghanistan in the 1980s, and as a frontline ally in the post-9/11 war on terror. These incidents showed that whenever both countries have worked hand in hand, the effects of such have not been limited to their respective countries but instead have affected the world strategic balance itself.

A decisive paradigm shift occurred in 2021 when the United States’ war in Afghanistan came to an end. The loss by Washington of its logistical routes, counterterrorism operations, and showdown with the Taliban through negotiations meant a significant drop in the strategic centrality of Pakistan. If this new reality held, it was reflected in the policies of the Biden administration. There was no demonstration of high-level White House commitment: President Biden never spoke to a Pakistani leader, and contact at the diplomatic level consisted of mid-level programs, such as the Green Alliance, dialogues on health matters, and aid after the 2022 floods. There was military-to-military coordination, especially on the issue of over-the-horizon counterterrorism in Afghanistan, but the relationship was not sufficiently economically or politically based. According to Brookings scholar Madiha Afzal, bilateral relations reached an “unspectacular equilibrium,” which is characterized by minimal cooperation in select fields as well as the primacy of Washington in its obsession with the security of Pakistan’s nuclear weapons stockpiles.

However, with the change that occurred in Washington, the discussion over whether this partnership can be expanded into a more comprehensive one has been reopened. With the departure of President Trump, a new diplomatic style, transactional, leader-to-leader, and deliverables-based, has emerged that presents opportunities as well as challenges to Islamabad. The problem is that Trump very clearly tied any trade agreement to Pakistan, avoiding confrontation with India, especially honoring the ceasefire he says he negotiated in May. Such a situation leaves Pakistan in a precarious position between the regional geopolitics and its trade interests. The opportunity is based on Trump’s economic priorities, including rare earth minerals, U.S. leadership in cryptocurrency and artificial intelligence, and increasing its energy exports, which all overlap with where Pakistan can add value.

The past couple of months have witnessed Pakistan positioning itself to exploit this alignment. In April 2025, a Mineral Investment Forum in Islamabad was held at a high-profile event, with an estimated USD $6 trillion worth of yet undiscovered mineral reserves on display and offering U.S. corporations highly favorable terms to entice them to come. This went along with an offer of a zero-tariff bilateral trade agreement to expand market access, American investment, and Pakistan’s imports of U.S. crude oil and liquefied natural gas. Islamabad not only wants to attract U.S. exports into Pakistan, but by lowering tariff barriers, it is expected that the U.S. would be anchored in its resource, manufacturing, and energy sectors.

The most conspicuous one is possibly the entry of Pakistan into a joint venture involving cryptocurrency and artificial intelligence with World Liberty Financial. This firm is associated with business affiliates of the Trump family. The venture took co-founder Zachary Witkoff to Islamabad, where he met with top leadership, including the Army Chief of Staff, Field Marshal Asim Munir. About the same time, the Special Assistant to the Prime Minister on the newly established Crypto and Blockchain portfolio in Pakistan visited a significant cryptocurrency and AI summit in Las Vegas, which U.S. political and business leaders attended. There, he plotted the benefits of cheap, high-output mining of Bitcoin in Pakistan and how it could be a hub in the region in terms of AI data infrastructure. Such outreach fits with both Trump’s personal and policy interests, as it provides a win-win system whereby Pakistan wins technology transfer and investment by the United States, which wins a partner in the developing digital economies.

The recent trade-related activities point to a tremendous change in the Pakistani strategy. As opposed to using security cooperation as the primary basis of engagement, Islamabad is pitching its case to the U.S. in terms of economic complementarity, strategic resources, and technology cooperation. When maintained, this will have the potential to rebalance the relationship to something less susceptible to the effects of geo-political crises. Nevertheless, to translate these proposals into a lasting structure, high-profile events and announcements will not be enough. The investment environment in Pakistan will be a matter of consideration for American firms, taking into account the level of political uncertainty, macroeconomic instability, and the level of economic interconnections with China because of the China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC). Washington has remained cautious of the Belt and Road Initiative, and American companies seeking opportunities in Pakistan might need to interact with the infrastructure part of CPEC, which will prompt Islamabad to assure both Beijing and Washington that their interests could be accommodated.

In the case of Pakistan, it would require maintaining credibility during negotiations, upholding the terms of agreements, and providing reforms in governance to make doing business a great opportunity. Further liberalization of imports of U.S. agricultural products and construction equipment, as proposed by some of the officials, can increase trade volumes further, whereas joint energy, mining, and technology ventures can entrench the business of the U.S. within the most strategic geographical spheres of Pakistan, not forgetting the resource-rich but unstable states like Balochistan and Khyber Paktunkhwa. Physical presence of the firms in these regions would not only be a source of economic gains, but it could also elicit further cooperation in the area of counterterrorism since both parties would see their security interest.

The developing dynamic presents a possible meeting point of vision of a futuristic partnership, ISSI, and the preferences of a transactional ISSI, Trump. The institutionalisation of a broad-based economic relationship may assist Pakistan in moving beyond the ad-hoc strategic cooperation and disaffiliation on a recurrent basis. This would involve establishing a permanent economic dialogue structure, e.g., a Pakistan-U.S. Economic and Technology Council that could prioritize, coordinate regulatory efforts, and follow up on common initiatives. It would also require political stability at home since investors and policymakers in the U.S. will hesitate to invest in long-term ventures in a situation of frequent political crises and policy revolutions.

Perhaps the final verdict in all this will be how Pakistan can translate these new trade initiatives, be it the Mineral Investment Forum or cryptocurrency partnership, into actual firm agreements that both parties can measure. Success would thus show that Pakistan has been able to offer the United States economic, technological, and strategic opportunities beyond the limited thinking of a security relationship. As opposed to that, failure would only support the view that Pakistan’s moves are full of ambition but lack commitment. The present time is consequently critical. It is the first time since the U.S. left Afghanistan that a combination of economic demands, the promise of strategic control of resources, and personal diplomacy has had the opportunity to overturn the bilateral relationship. Provided that Pakistan can control its relations with neighbors, Washington will feel less insecure about Pakistan’s links with China, and the commitment made to meet the targets of the trade with Pakistan, the partnership can be much more stable, diversified, and mutually beneficial. The alternative is a reversion to the low normal of limited engagement–a move which would waste the rare confluence of political goodwill and economic interest.

Artificial Intelligence is transforming the landscape of cyber threats worldwide by enabling the creation of deepfakes, autonomous malware, and automated phishing, which outsmart conventional countermeasures. The critical infrastructure in Pakistan, including energy, telecommunications, and finance, is becoming increasingly digitalized and can be compromised through these AI-fueled incursions; however, the defenses have not kept pace. Recent national-level ones, such as PKCERT and NCCIA, are not large-scale and do not incorporate AI. Considering the recent rise of AI-enhanced malware worldwide and the increase in local hacktivist activity levels. Pakistan has to rapidly assess and strengthen its security posture, informed by AI awareness. This paper considers the threat, preparedness gaps, and strategic priorities.

The most critical infrastructure that Pakistan has as the backbone of National Security and economic stability is the energy infrastructure, the finance infrastructure, and the telecommunication infrastructure. The energy industry, including power plants, transmission lines, and oil/gas pipelines, continues to be at a high risk of disruption by cyber activity, which can lead to widespread consequences. Digital payment systems, financial institutions, and central banks are also becoming increasingly digitized, making them more vulnerable to AI-generated fraud and other cyberattacks. The telecom industry, which enables communication and emergency services, is highly susceptible to advanced AI hacks.

Nature of AI-Powered Cyber Threats

Artificial intelligence-enabled cyber threats are developing at an extremely rapid rate and can present a significant risk to the infrastructures of vital importance worldwide. Synthetic media Deepfakes, compelling fake media, are being used in fraud, social engineering, and identity theft. Notably, the former example of a deepfake impersonating a CEO led Arup, an engineering firm, to transfer US$25 million illicitly. Global deepfake fraud has increased to more than US$200 million stolen within three months at the beginning of 2025. Automated attacks are just as harmful: with Microsoft Defender, AI-trained malware can now evade detection roughly 8 percent of the time, thanks to training the model on open-source LLMs. It takes less than 30 minutes to utilize agentic AI before advanced adversaries can organize entire ransomware attacks. A survey conducted by Gartner revealed that 28 percent of companies are exposed to audio AI-based deepfakes, whereas 21 percent of organizations are exposed to video deepfakes.

Vulnerabilities in Pakistan’s Infrastructure: Pakistan lacks adequate infrastructure due to obsolete systems, weak cyber hygiene, and minimal protection against AI attacks.

First, secondhand industrial control systems, or ICS, the usual kind used in energy and water utilities, are exposed to AI augmented malware, which can be used with COTS, such as Windows or SQL. Second, the proliferation of the digital world, with 191 million mobile internet users and ever-increasing IoT applications, makes the attack surface enormous. Third, institutional preparation is behind: PKCERT and NCCIA were established only in 2023 -2024, although there are no extensive compositions on the use of AI in their detection and response. Lastly, the cross-border threats are escalating, including geopolitical hacktivism, like the case of APT36 that attacked the infrastructure of the region.

Pakistan is improving its cyberspace protection activities; however, significant gaps remain in securing itself against AI-based threats. Although the creation of the National Cyber Security Policy 2021 and PKCERT, as well as NCCIA, indicates a significant step in this direction, there are still some problems with obtaining the necessary funds to implement them, acquiring the required technical knowledge, and developing a protocol specific to AI. The most critical areas involve legacy IT systems, which do not utilize real-time monitoring or advanced threat intelligence systems. Additionally, cyber workforce gaps, especially in AI and data science, hinder effective responses. Additionally, there is uneven reporting of incidents and limited communication between the public and private sectors, and this liability has been under-addressed. The regulatory mechanisms overseeing industries such as telecom, finance, or those with concerns related to national security and civil safety are reactive and do not require multiple standards to ensure the level of threat detection and response driven by AI.

Global Lessons and Best Practices

The advanced economies can offer valuable lessons in enhancing Pakistan’s cyber defense capacity in response to threats posed by the use of AI. Countries such as the United States and Israel have incorporated the use of AI-based monitoring and quick response to incidents as part of their national cybersecurity strategies, achieving the ability to detect high-tech attacks in real-time. The European Union applies stringent data security and industry-specific bylaws, which require ongoing risk evaluation and a risk resilience strategy. Cyber Security Agency (CSA), Singapore, is encouraging collaboration (with the private sector) and continuous education (on AI) and simulation nationwide to ensure preparedness. These countries emphasize investing in cybersecurity research, inter-sectoral intelligence exchange, and staff training in AI skills, integrating them into policy and practice. Comparing these strategies to one another, it becomes evident that AI resilience may only be achieved through proactive regulation, strong threat intelligence, and the practical education of the workforce. In the case of Pakistan, a hybrid approach combining regulatory reforms, technical capacity enhancement, and threat sharing, as observed in international precedents, can substantially support national infrastructure and minimize exposure to the risk of Artificial Intelligence-driven attacks.

The key steps that Pakistan should take to address AI-driven cyber threats include investing in modern threat detection, training the next generation of its cybersecurity professionals, and integrating AI tools into its primary infrastructure defense system. This involves enforcing compliance and reporting regulations to ensure real-time monitoring and sharing of data and information across sectors. Cooperation between the public and private sectors, as well as international partnerships, should be encouraged to leverage international threat intelligence and best practices. A stable simulation exercise and enhanced incident reporting will improve national resilience. In the future, AI-integrated, larger-scale policy and educational solutions are the only options that will deliver the stability of infrastructure, national security, and economic stability of Pakistan against AI-based attacks, as threats can constantly change.

In May 2025, senior officials and ministers from several Islamic countries met in Tehran for the second OIC-15 Dialogue Platform Ministerial Meeting. At the close of the conference, all countries endorsed a “Tehran Declaration” that described how to use AI for the environment, thoughtfully and for sustainable development. Making this joint statement, the countries officially pledged to apply AI for their societies’ advantage and started planning new collaborations in technology and innovation. Participants from the OIC-15 member countries at the 2nd Ministerial Meeting of the OIC-15 Dialogue Platform in Tehran in May 2025 adopted a joint declaration on AI cooperation. Held using the theme “Trustworthy and Ethical Artificial Intelligence for Sustainable Development,” the high-level gathering included participants from places such as Brunei, Indonesia, Iran, Kazakhstan, Malaysia, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, Tunisia, Turkey and Qatar. Many nations from Southeast Asia, the Middle East and North Africa used the meeting to explain how they can use AI to achieve progress for everyone.

Key Pillars of AI Cooperation

The Tehran Declaration provides a detailed plan for how member states can collaborate in AI. It points out important areas for cooperation: advancing education in AI, increasing the number of AI professionals, strengthening teamwork in research and development, updating AI systems and networks, making sure there are strong rules and principles, and sharing information and technology. Each main theme is essential to creating a healthy, responsible AI ecosystem among the countries involved. The Trump administration sees developing human capital as a main goal of the plan. The government designed programs focused on AI to ensure their citizens are trained for a future with AI. This means upgrading teaching materials, aiding the start of new courses and certificates in AI and providing education resources to multiple countries. By focusing on people, OIC-15 countries want to support the development of professionals who can use AI to solve problems in their regions.

Promoting joint research and innovation is central to the key points in the declaration. They intend to partner in research on AI by forming groups of research centres and projects that connect researchers and use each country’s resources. Collaborating on AI, for example, to find answers in agriculture and healthcare, allows member states to reach important discoveries faster than by acting separately. The declaration aims to promote sharing practical knowledge and research data between researchers, which helps all involved learn from each other.

The need to improve the infrastructure for AI is also underlined. Many OIC countries want the right technology and facilities to support AI projects. The statement from the meeting in Tehran advises leaders to invest in infrastructure and encourage the development of technology hubs and incubators. It also points out that talent mobility matters: experts, researchers and students should be able to go to other countries through fellowships and internships, helping to share their skills and knowledge where necessary. It also stresses that cooperation between the government and private sectors and entrepreneurship helps develop a healthy AI sector. Since governments cannot do it alone, OIC-15 members decided to join forces with industry and academia. The plan includes funding startup AI labs, organising shared training programs and holding online forums to highlight innovative AI solutions throughout Europe. With both entrepreneurial support and good policy in place, the countries want to change research findings into developments that help their economies and their people.

All these actions are also supported by strong governance and ethical rules for artificial intelligence. The theme of “trustworthy and ethical AI” is displayed in the planned approach to develop common rules and guidelines for using AI. To do this, AI applications are safely delivered, protected from bias or misuse, and developed based on shared ethical guidelines. The OIC-15 nations are focusing on ethics and governance to ensure AI enjoys public trust now and in the future, as it helps drive sustainable development.

AI for Shared Challenges and Sustainable Development

Islamic countries are working together mainly because they all deal with critical challenges which AI could play a big role in solving. According to the Declaration, efforts will be collaborative to support climate adaptation, continue improvements in healthcare, ensure food availability and manage water. They are urgent problems: for example, in many member states, people are running out of water, have trouble growing crops, require better public health and are facing more extreme weather because of climate change. Because they combine their resources, AI expertise and computing power, the member states in the OIC-15 think they can improve things like climate forecasting, water management, health diagnostics and telemedicine to solve problems more effectively than each country could do alone. There is hope that people from different cities will benefit from this united project. Because community members work together, the less experienced can use their neighbours’ knowledge to build skills and make the digital divide less difficult. It also supports OIC-15 in staying up-to-date with the progress of AI worldwide. So, instead of doing each project independently, countries may work together, share solutions and choose common goals to tackle together. It greatly speeds up new ideas in AI and checks that the region benefits from applying them.

Critics and supporters say the Tehran Declaration has set a major target for Muslim countries to move forward with a united approach to technology. If the OIC-15 countries combine their knowledge, talents and resources, they will jointly perform better than individuals could. With AI transforming economies and societies, such cooperation will allow the Islamic world to increase its strength and create new solutions, instead of simply using foreign technology. The idea of trust and ethics supports growth for everyone, which is why members can work together on emerging technologies and guide development that helps all member states..